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Egypt is home to one of the richest and most ancient civilizationsin the world, extending to several millennia BCE. For centuries, this civilization continued to be a source of enlightenment to the whole world. The remains of its wonders still marvel students of Egyptology and history as well as tourists that come to watch it from all over the world.
Egypt has always been at the heart of successive and innovative human, social and cultural interaction. This interaction has made an important contribution to the making of Egypt's history, society and culture. Indeed one of the most salient characters of contemporary Egyptian society and culture is the multiplicity of its historical experiences and the diversity of its cultural ingredients
ANCIENT EGYPT
The history of ancient Egypt extends
over the period from 3100 BCE to 322 BCE. This period can be divided
into 30 dynasties (30 ruling families) which can, in turn, be
grouped into four main groups, the old kingdom, middle kingdom,
new kingdom and the late period. This extended history saw the
repetition of cycles of long periods of prosperity and great achievements
followed by periods of stagnation and deterioration with short
incidence of foreign rule.
The Archaic kingdom (3100-2181
BCE, 1st-6th Dynasties)
The beginning of Egypt's dynastic
history is marked by the unification of the two kingdoms of pre
dynastic Egypt: the northern kingdom, whose Kings wore the red
crown, and the southern kingdom, whose Kings wore the white crown.
This unification by King Menes brought the oldest state in human
history into existence and inaugurated Egypt's dynastic history.
 The Giza Pyramids |
 The Sphinx |
During the third dynasty of the Old Kingdom (27th century BCE),
the first of Egypt's pyramids were constructed. The Step Pyramid
of Saqqara was built for King Zoser by his chief architect Imhotep.
This construction is considered the first attempt in the world
to build a whole structure out of stone.
The Fourth Dynasty (2613-2494 BCE), refered to as the pyramids
age, was characterized by expansionism and pyramid construction.
King Sneferu, who constructed the Red and Bent Pyramid at Dahshur
and the Pyramid of Meidum south of Saqqara, sent military expeditions
as far as Libya and Nubia. During his reign trading along the
Nile flourished. Sneferu's descendants, Khufu (Cheops), Khafre
(Chephren) and Menkaure (Mycerinus) built the pyramids and the
Sphinx of Giza. Under Khufu, Egypt became the first state in history
to be governed according to an organized system. The Fourth Dynasty
also extended trade relations with the Near East and mined and
smelted copper in Nubia.
During the Sixth Dynasty (2330-2170 BC), the unified land broke
down to small provincial principalities that challenged the Pharaoh's
power, which resulted in a period of chaos and decline, until
the collapse of the sixth dynasty and the end of the old kingdom.
The Middle Kingdom (2133-1786
BCE, 11th-12th Dynasties)
King Monteuhotep Nebhetepra was the founder of the Middle Kingdom.
He reigned over Egypt for about fifty years re-establishing political
and social order, thus reviving economic and artistic development.
Trading was resumed and mines were reopened. Expansionist campaigns
were relaunched against Libya, Nubia and the Bedouins of the Sinai.
One of the important kings from the twelfth Dynasty, Senusert
I, built a powerful fort at the second Cataract and probably began
a whole series of similar forts all the way to Semna (third Cataract).
By the end of the twelfth Dynasty, provincial governors began
to vie for power, leading to instability and upheaval. Meanwhile
some Asiatic tribes infiltrated into Egypt. These tribes, commonly
refered to as Hyksos, gradually were able to work up the hierarchy
of Egyptian government, and found their own dynasty controlling
the north and establishing their capital city at Avaris (east
Delta).
The Hyksos rule ended by the 17th Dynasty, from the south (Thebes).
Kamose laid siege to Avaris, his successor Ahmos expelled the
Hyksos out of Egypt followed them to Palestine and was able to
annihilate them completely. Ahmos returned to Egypt and established
the 18th Dynasty and the new Kingdom.
The New kingdom (1567-1085 BCE
18th-20th Dynasty)
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Imperial expansion continued under Amenophis II and Tuthmosis
IV. Under Amenophis III the kingdom was secure enough for the
Pharaoh to build many of the greatest Pharaonic temples, including
the Temple of Luxor.
His son Amenophis IV fought with the priesthood of the god Amun
and changed his name to Akhenaten in honor of the god Aten. With
his wife Nefertiti, Akhenaten established a new capital at Tel
El-Amarna dedicated to the worship of Aten, which many believe
was the first organized monotheistic religion. Later his successors
denounced his beliefs as heresy.
Tutankhamen, who succeeded Akhenaten, ruled for nine years. He
is most remembered for the fabulous treasures uncovered when his
tomb was discovered in 1922.
King Ramses of the nineteenth dynasty, also constructed monumental
structures like the Ramesseum in Thebes and the temples of Abu
Simbel. His son Merneptah spent much of his reign driving back
invaders from Libya and the Mediterranean. He is believed to be
the biblical Pharaoh described in Exodus.
The third intermediate period (1069-715 BCE, 21st-24th Dynasties)
was characterized by successive waves of foreign invasions, from
the west, east and south, gradually, eroding the power of the
kingdom. It was during the 21st Dynasty (Priests of Amun) that
the robbery of the Royal tombs in western Thebes was discovered.
Pharaohs depended on Greek mercenaries to enforce law and face
foreign invasions (Assyrian and Persian).
The Late Dynastic Period (716-332
BCE, 25th-30th Dynasties)
The Kushite Dynasty (25th Dynasty) of Nubian origin took control
of Egypt. These Kings were thoroughly Egyptianized, worshipping
Amun writing in hieroglyphics and building monuments in the Egyptian
style.
The Persians first invaded Egypt in 525 BCE. The conquering Persians
established the twenty-seventh Dynasty (525-404BC) which ruled
Egypt with an iron hand. Under the emperors Cambyses and Darius,
they completed a canal connecting the Nile with the Red Sea which
had been first started under the 12th Dynasty (SenusertI) then
reopened by the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty king Necho II.
In the year 322 BCE Alexander the Great defeats the Persians in
Egypt, laying claim to Egyptian land.
Religion
Knowledge of Egyptian religion is indispensable for anyone who
wishes to grasp the essence of the Egyptian civilization. Religion
had deeply dominated all aspects of the Egyptian culture. The
Egyptian pantheon included many gods that varied in character
and form. This diversity was due to the constant growth of religious
beliefs over many centuries during which new ideas were introduced
without ever discarding any old ones (except during the reign
of Akhenaten).
The ancient Egyptian temple was considered the dwelling house
of the god, it was a miniature picture of the world at the moment
of creation. It was conceived as the center of creation. This
symbolic role of the temple was expressed in its location and
design as well as the decoration of its walls and ceiling. The
temple's daily ritual was a dramatization of the god's daily life.
The public had no role in the daily religious rituals, in fact
access to the inner parts of the temple was strictly forbidden
to the common people, who could only participate in the great
festivals.
Egyptians were particularly obsessed
by death and burial. However their preoccupation with the afterlife
originated essentially from their devotion to life. In death
as in life, the Egyptians expected to belong to an hierarchical
society in which the best was reserved for the king and the nobles.
It was believed that the best existence of man after life is composed
of what was thought as the best and the most desired style of
life available to each social class in its life on earth. In order
to achieve the desirable end, the deceased should assure that
his name continued to exist, his body remain intact, and his tomb
be supplied with all the necessary food and drink. This led to
the development of exquisite tombs containing incorruptible mummy
and inscribed with texts with the owner's name and with scenes
that would secure for him by magical means food, drink and other
desirable objects.
Art flourished and played a vital
role in shaping the ancient Egyptian culture. The ancient Egyptian
conceived art as a means of translating his religious belief into
a visual form. Thus all forms of art had a ritual purpose. By
examining the scenes on the walls of the tombs and temples, we
see that it can be divided into two basic types: The religious
formal scenes, depict the world of the gods and the dead,
and the major figures in them are those of the deities, the king
or the tomb owner. The figures were all shown in an idealized
perfect form. The men were youthful and handsome. The women were
slim and beautiful. The scenes showing daily life, presented
figures that were far from being perfect sometimes even showing
deformity. While the poses of the formal figures were limited,
the poses in which minor figures might be shown were extremely
wide.
The introduction of the new religion
by Akhenaten, refered to earlier, led to a distinctive style of
art, one of the most obvious characteristics of which is that
the king was shown with bizarre and distorted features. It remains
a controversial matter whether this way of representation reflects
Akhenaten's real physical appearance or rather an image of Akhenaten
that arises from his religious ideas.
After centuries of upheaval and foreign
incursions, Egypt was in disarray when Alexander established his
own Pharaonic rule, reorganizing the country's government, founding
a new capital city of Alexandria and validating the religion of
the pharaohs.
Upon his death in 323 BCE, the empire
of Alexander was divided among his Macedonian generals. Ptolemy
I established his Dynasty (the Ptolemaic Dynasty), which ruled
Egypt for three centuries. Under the Ptolemys Greek became the
official language of Egypt and Hellenistic culture and ideas were
introduced and synthesized with indigenous Egyptian theology,
art, architecture and technology. Under the Ptolemies the temples
of Philae, Edfu, Kom Ombo and Esna were built in the Egyptian
style to honor the Egyptian gods among other sacred structures.
Alexandria became a great capital, housing one of history's greatest
libraries.
Gradually Ptolemaic rule was subverted
by internal power struggles and Roman intervention. The Romans
made inroads into Ptolemaic Egypt, supporting various rulers and
factions until they attained total control over the country when
Julius Caesar's armies attacked Alexandria. Queen Cleopatra VII
was the last of the Ptolemaic rulers who reigned under the protection,
first of Caesar and later of Mark Anthony. However, the fleets
of Octavius destroyed the Egyptian navy in the battle of Actium,
driving Anthony and Cleopatra to suicide and making Egypt a province
of the Roman Empire.
Octavius became the first Roman ruler
of Egypt, reigning as the Emperor Augustus. Egypt became the granary
of the Roman Empire and remained stable for about 30 years. The
Romans, like their Greek predecessors, synthesized many Egyptian
beliefs with their own, building and adding to temples at Dendara,
Esna and at Philae. Hellenism remained a dominant cultural force
in Alexandria which continued to be a centre of Greek learning.
Two main events mark the history
of early Christianity in Egypt (Coptic Egypt):
1- the beginning of the Coptic calendar
in ADE 284, in commemoration of the persecution suffered by Egypt's
Christians at the hands of the Roman Emperor Diodetian, and
2- the establishment of an independent
Egyptian (Coptic) Church in 451, following the council of Chalcedony
which condemned the monphysite (one nature) of Jesus Christ. The
schism between the Byzantine and Coptic churches was never closed.
This tension between the Egyptian Copts and the Byzantine State
may in part account for the Copts acceptance of the Muslim conquest
which was seen as liberation from the Byzantine yoke.
Coptic art in Egypt was profoundly
and almost essentially a decorative art of the people. Walls,
columns, and capitals were covered with paintings and frescos
(carvings of stone and wood with religious symbolism). The Coptic
art is extremely fond of realism, as evident in the so-called
Faiyum portraits and in frescoes of Saqqara and Barwit.
Seven paramount, ancient, Coptic
Churches and monasteries share ground with the Coptic Museum in
"misr al-qadima" (Old Egypt), a district of Cairo. They
date back between the 5th and 8th century ADE. The oldest church,,
of Abu Sargah, was built on top of the crypt where the Holy Family
sought refuge after their flight to Egypt. The place, moreover,
embraces Virgin Mary's Church known as the "mualaqa"
hanging Church. The Coptic Museum itself encloses rare treasures
from the Coptic Period.
In 642 ADE, the Arab conquest of
Egypt was complete. The Arabs were welcomed by the Copts, because
they rid them of Greek Melkites and allowed them to elect their
own Patriarch. From Fustat, the new Islamic capital of Egypt
(now part of Cairo), Egypt was administrated as a province of
the Islamic Khalifate until 868, when Egypt gained a sort of an
autonomy with the establishment of the Tulunid (868-935), and
then the Ikhshidi (935-969) dynasties, which ruled Egypt as an
independent country up until the Fatimid dynasty.
Internal power struggles, famine
and external pressures led to the downfall of the Fatimid empire
at the hands of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi "Saladin", who
is the founder of the Ayyubi dynasty 1117-1250, and who built
a fortress wall around Cairo and the surrounding settlements,
ending with the Citadel as a defense post against the Crusaders.
Salah al-Din is revered as one of the greatest heroes of Islam
as well as Arab nationalism, for his brilliant military and administrative
mind and for defeating the Crusaders.
Ottoman rule meant that Egypt (1516-1798)
returned back to being a province of a larger empire ruled from
Istanbul. Although the Ottoman Turks were brilliant military strategists
and developed a rich Islamic civilization, they were poor colonial
administrators. Their direct involvement in government rarely
extended to more than enforcing tax collection, relying on the
Mamluk. This lack of concern manifested in neglect and deterioration
facilitated the French invasion of Egypt in 1798.
Islamic Art and Culture
The expansion of the Arabs as a power in the 7th century ADE made them heirs to civilizations stretching back several thousands of years. Islamic art and culture was the product of a continuos process of open interaction, local adaptation and innovative development of preexisting civilizations. The Empire, with its open border and evolving cohesion, became a melting pot of diverse cultural heritages. The advent of Islam and the integration of Egypt in the open and expanding Islamic Empire, opened Egypt to settlers and influences from various regions, including Arabia, the Levant, North Africa, Central Asia and Southern Europe. The genius of Egypt revealed itself in its ability to adapt foreign influences to Egyptian society and make it part of a one cohesive entity. Islamic art and culture in Egypt, which reveals itself today in numerous intellectual products, valuable architectural monuments, pieces of tinted glass, stucco designs and patterns, and wooden and stone geometrical designs, as well as sets of traditions and customs, is the product of diverse influences all through Egypt's Islamic history, as well as a remarkable process of assimilation and adaptation these influences both to the natural conditions of Egypt as well as to the folklore of its old people.
Art
Greek Rule in Egypt (332-30 BCE)
Roman and Byzantine Rule (30 BCE-ADE
638)
In its early years in Egypt Christianity
was engaged in a lengthy struggle against the indigenous religious
practices descending from ancient times. However, and in spite
of Roman persecution of Christian converts throughout the Empire,
Christianity spread very quickly in Egypt that most of Egypt was
converted to the new faith by the mid second century.
Art
ISLAMIC EGYPT
The Fatimids (969-1171) were the only Shietes (an Islamic sect) who
ever ruled Egypt. Their palaces were built inside a fortress called
"al-Qahira", which expanded to become modern Cairo.
Their first Caliph built Al-Azhar mosque in 972, which continues
to be the foremost center of theology in Islam and the oldest
continuously practicing university in the world.
It was during the Ayyubi dynasty
that the Mamluks (literally meaning owned by) were brought into
Egypt from the Caucuses and the black Sea area, where they were
raised educated and trained. They became the core of the army
and were given a measure of freedom that allowed some to rise
to prominent positions of power. They seized power founding Mamluk
dynasties (1256-1517 ADE). They succeeding in stopping the Mongol
invasion of the Near East. Their rule ended by the Ottoman conquest
of Egypt in 1517 ADE.
MODERN EGYPT
The arrival of Napoleon Bonaparte to Egypt in July 1798, accompanied with a number of western savants and scientists (who made a complete encyclopedic survey of Egypt, known as "Description de l'Egypte"and who contributed significantly to the study of ancient Egypt through the discovery of the Rosetta Stone and the consequent deciphering ancient scripture (hieroglyphics)) is considered by many the beginning of a new phase in Egypt's history, in which western influence and penetration became one of the most important factors shaping the development of Egypt. It also played an important role in inducing Egypt's drive towards modernization.
After the departure of the French expedition, Mohammad Ali, who was an Albanian officer in the Ottoman Army, rose to power with the support of the Egyptian people. His rule extending from 1805 to 1849, was an eventful period in Egypt's modern history that played and important role in the march towards modernization. His dynasty ruled Egypt till 1952.
It was Khedive Ismail (1863), one of the successors, who took the process of modernization drastically forward with a clear emphasis on the import of western ideas, methods and techniques. He established the first Egyptian Parliament, which is considered one of Egypt's early steps on the road to democracy. It was during his reign, in 1869, that the Suez Canal was inaugurated.
Towards the end of the 19th Century, and exactly on August 12th 1882, British troops landed at Alexandria marking the beginning of British occupation which lasted for 74 years.
The beginning of the 20th century witnessed the awakening of the nationalism. Mustafa Kamel, Sa'ad Zaghloul, Mustafa El Nahas and many others were prominent figures who strove to achieve two national objectives; independence and constitutional reform.
On the 28th of February 1922, Britain unilaterally declared the termination of the British Protectorate and declared Egypt an independent state. In 1923, the first Constitution was promulgated and Sa'ad Zaghloul formed the first representative government of Egypt. British troops continued to exist in the Suez canal area, and British influence continued to be paramount.
After the 1948 Palestine War, at the end of which the State of Israel was created on Palestinian territory, political, economic and social frustration intensified in Egypt. This led to the formation of the Free Officers Movement, created by a group of young officers who felt that they had been betrayed in the war by their own government.
On the 23rd of July 1952, the Free Officer Movement led by Gamal Abd El-Nasser seized power in a bloodless revolution against the British occupation, the Political regime, and the social system . In June 1953, Egypt was declared a Republic and Mohamad Naguib was named as the first President.
In 1954 Nasser assumed control as the second president. During Nasser's presidency, extensive agricultural and industrial development projects were carried out. Progressive economic and social reforms were implemented for the benefit of the majority of the Egyptian people. However, the set back in the 1967 war against Israel as well as the changes in the international political and economic international system pointed to new directions for Egypt's development.
With the death of President Nasser in September 1970, President Anwar El-Sadat assumed office. On October 6th, 1973, the Egyptian army crossed the Suez Canal, stormed the Bar Lev line and recaptured parts of Sinai occupied by Israel in 1967. To overcome the state of belligerency, President Sadat announced his historic initiative to visit Israel in November 1977 pursuit of lasting peace, an event that had a great influence on the history of the region. The Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty was signed in March 1979. The Sadat period witnessed changes in the political, social and economic domains. The private sector was given a greater share in the country's economy through the implementation of the "Open Door Policy", which was the first step along the road toward economic and political liberalization which is the main characteristic of the current administration of President Hosny Mubarak, who succeeded Sadat as President, in October 1981. (see also section on the political system and economy).
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